Costing Methods Essay

Polk Company is in the business of selling custom fishing lures. Recently they decided to introduce a new product. Before they introduce the product they would like to know if variable or absorption costing is the best method for the company. Variable and Absorption Costing Method Absorption costing is when all manufacturing costs are absorbed by the product and shows a higher net income (Kieso, Kimmel, & Weygandt, 2011). Based on the 80,500 lures Polk Company sold in 2012, absorption costing is the preferred method to use because they have a higher net income compared to the variable method. Benefits The benefit of absorption costing for Polk Company is they will show a higher net income of the products in inventory that are not sold immediately. On the contrary, if Polk Company uses variable costing they see any profit or loss almost immediately because all expenses are paid during the current accounting period, even if all the products are not sold. Competition and Bidding Absorption costing is the better costing method for Polk Company to use against a competitor who has submitted a lower bid. As stated previously, absorption costing does not require Polk Company to show any expenses on the products they are offering in the bid because they do not have to show expenses until after the products are sold. Conclusion In conclusion, Polk Company should introduce the new fishing lures by using the absorption costing method, and for submitting product bids. References Kieso, D., Kimmel, P., & Weygandt, J. (2011). Accounting: Tools for Business Decision Making, 4e (4th ed.). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

Taking Junk Food Out of Schools

In recent years, more than a dozen states have considered setting legislation limitations for the accessibility of junk food in schools, most requiring vending equipment to be turned off during certain hours, off until the students lunch break, or increasing the coast of unhealthy foods to discourage students from purchasing it (Parents Advocating School Responsibilities) . In today’s society teenagers are 3 times likely to be overweight than the generation of our parents. According to the 2001 Surgeon General Report establishes that 14 percent of American youth are overweight (Surgeon General 2001).This is compared with 4 percent of American children in 1963. The correspondent also stated that 300,000 citizens pass away each year from obesity-related illnesses or circumstances made worse by obesity (Surgeon General 2001). The reason for not banning junk food in schools is more students will get in trouble for smuggling in the junk food than other rule breakings. Being able to enforce such a disallow would compel officials to go through a students locker, desk, book bag, desk and lunch boxes, taking up much needed time for the facilitator to teach and harming the students’ privacy.It should be up to parents on deciding what foods their children consume. If a child wants to have a little snack or sugary foods in their lunches they should be allowed to if it’s ok with their parents (Borkar 2011). Consumption of junk food is not bad if it’s done in moderation and can go well with a healthy diet. One advantage of allowing snack food in schools is that if adolescent does not bring a lunch carrier then he or she does not have to stay hungry and can simply have something to satisfy their appetite (Borkar 2011).

The case of the Montclair Hotel Group Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The of the Montclair Hotel Group - Case Study Example Another important information to be gathered is whether the employees are given any supplementary training that will make them work efficiently. A sample of the employees will be assessed on their opinions on what should be changed in their line of work and overall performance. The committee will use various methods to capture the report data. These methods are through Observation, Interviews, and Questionnaires. Through observation, the committee investigators will sought out information for the project through direct observation without asking the respondent (itsvineeth209). The main advantages of observation are there is less subjective bias, and the information is current. Interviews involve presentation oral verbal questions and responses between the interviewer and interviewee. This project will make use of personal interviews that are face to face. The questionnaire is a way through which a sample of questions are administered to the respondents who are supposed to return them to the one who administered them. After the information has been gathered, it will be disseminated according to requirements to create contrasting reports. The different reports that will be created are Hiring and Training report. This report shall contain all the methods and procedures that are followed to recruit employees in MHG Hotels, the remuneration structures, supplementary training and methods of appraisal. This report shall also deliver the mechanisms that available for benchmarking of the performance of employees periodically. Secondly, the following report will be the Management structure report. This report shall contain all the roles, responsibilities of the management and the reviewed Code of Conduct that needs to be abode by every employee. The most important report to be tabled is that of the alignment of the Mission and the Vision to the goals of MHG Hotels to meet the set objectives. These reports shall make use of graphical representations such as charts for eas ier analysis and market activity can be recognized (Investopedia). These reports shall be received first to the Chief Executive Officer of the MHG Hotel Chains, and then the Head of relevant Departments will receive them for indispensable department changes. The reports only become relevant to the department if they address the pertinent issues that affect them. The data analyzed from the project shall be clustered based on similar characteristics. The information that results from this filtering is then arranged in an organized manner to form a report. These reports shall both be hard copy and soft copy. The hard copy reports shall be kept for future reference and can be admissible as evidence in court when a dispute arises in the organization. The soft copy reports shall be used since it is easily accessible as long it is stored in the central server of the organization. Cloud computing is one method that seeks to reduce the environmental impact of data storage (Bouquet). First, p urpose of the project should be made clear to all the stakeholders in the MHG Hotel Chains. This is to safeguard the Action plan’s implementation and make amendments to the plan if assessment data point out they are required. The Action plan can be implemented in the following steps: Discuss needs assessment Define the problem Brainstorm ideas Prioritize ideas Development of problem statements i. Develop solutions

How satisfactorily do the elements of state practice and opinio juris Essay

How satisfactorily do the elements of state practice and opinio juris explain the process of customary international law formation - Essay Example Therefore this essay shows that though there is a distinction between state practice and opinio juris but the element of both these (i.e. state practice and opinio juris) assists in the formation of customary international law. The actions are the state practice whereas the statements are opinio juris. Hence, custom can be formed by the actions only when these actions are came with a juncture of the action’s legality. Opinio juris relates statements of belief instead of real beliefs.3 In addition to this, opinio juris is presented by the resolutions and pacts as both of these are the statements regarding the activity’s lawfulness, instead of cases of that action. The information used for this essay is taken from different websites by using the search engines. In this essay we will first assess customary international law and then we will discuss how does state practice and opinio juris are used for the formation of customary international law. In general, it is accepted that two components that are necessary for the presence of customary international law are state practice and an impression that this practice is mandatory, allowed or prohibited, based on the type of the regulation, as a question of law (opinio juris). According to international justice court â€Å"It is naturally self-evident that the object of customary international law is to be searched mainly in the state’s real practice and opinio juris.†4 After the assessment of customary international we continue our essay and start assessing the one of the element of customary international law i.e. state practice. For this purpose the source the use is the book name â€Å"Legal Personality in International Law,† written by Roland Portmann. The content related to the state practice taken from this book is discussed below; To assess the state practice, it has to be considered whether

Accounting software Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Accounting software - Essay Example An Accounting Information System (AIS) is an organized framework which is used to keep the business accounting records and information by an organization (Wikipedia.org, 2006). The system can be a manual system or a software based application. This report covers the essential user requirements for the development of an Accounting Information System application, fully equipped to cater all the requirements of internal and external stakeholders.After conducting a formal and organized users' needs assessment survey, that included interviewing key users and process owners and studying the business processes, the analyst team has identified the major requirements of the proposed accounting information system (Accounting Software Research, 2002).The software should include ABC's chart of accounts. If this is not set up properly so that revenues and costs are captured and segregated into the best suited categories, the financial reports will be useless and misleading.All transactions need t o be recorded by AIS. No transaction, once entered, will be allowed to be deleted. Transactions may, however, be reversed if incorrectly recorded in the AIS. The AIS should provide facility for transaction processing and activities like real time transactions entries, validation and verification checks, posting and reconciling, balancing totals etc. The AIS should maintain and produce financial statements for the company based on the transactions that are entered into the software. The system should be able to group various items as per the rules already provided in the system and should be able to develop all relevant financial statements of the company like Balance Sheet, Income Statement, Cash Flow Statement, Statement of changes in equity, etc. Accounts Payable Vendor Master File All related information about vendors and suppliers should be stored in the application appropriately and should be accessible to authorized personnel only. Purchasing Controls The procurement process of the company should be automated. There should be features for request for proposal, purchase orders printing and control, vendor and order details, invoice, etc. Check Writing Checks should be automatically printed from the system upon request. The procedure should take into account proper authorizations and verification features. Accounts Receivable Customer Master File All related information about customers is kept in the system and is accessible to authorized personnel only. Invoicing The customer invoice process that is followed by business should be automated; hence invoices will be produced by the system when necessary information is entered by the operator. Cash Receipts and Debt Collection Rules should be defined in the system for the process of cash receiving from customers using cash, bank checks and other means. Similarly, the system should be able to track debts and loans, should be programmed so that the loans are properly aged, and the collection procedures that is being applied to recover the debt, should be recorded in the system. Payroll Employee Files All related information about employees of the company is kept in the system and is accessible to authorized personnel only. Human Resource Management Payroll benefits, skills classification, applications for recruitment, selection procedures, screened candidates' information, training records, employee health and safety records. Vacation records etc. will be maintained in this sub-module. Payroll Check Writing Payroll checks will be produced automatically by the system at due date. The necessary monitoring controls should be applied to ensure proper treatment of rewards, bonuses, stop payments etc

Drawing Competition Award Ceremony Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Drawing Competition Award Ceremony - Essay Example Research shows that THALASSAEMIA has transformed from a fatal childhood disease into a mere chronic one. This shows that health authorities are concerned about improving the condition of the patients. Why then due to economic downfall have we neglected the necessity of financing an issue which has shown the potential for improvement? Healthy citizens are an asset to the nation; they help make a country grow and reach its goals. A country that does not see the importance of the wellbeing of its people cannot hope to prosper. It is an obligation for all of us to voice out this issue so that recession does not become a threat to our health. Let us be a part of the struggle that the health sector is making in trying to eradicate these diseases from the face of this world. Let us join hands and be the voice of the patients who suffer from such a disease. So that they have hope to see in the near future their children and grandchildren devoid of the pain they went through. Health is a basi c right for all the citizens and for patients it is a necessity. And so we as a nation should make sure that this sector does not go unnoticed due to the economic downfall. Creating awareness about the seriousness of the issue a drawing competition was held. The topic was â€Å"Economic Recession: Observe- Join Forces- Safeguard Health: The right to quality health care for every patient†. High School Students and Senior High/ Technical School Students were allowed to register for the competition. This competition aimed to create awareness about the attention not being paid to the health department with respect to Thalassemia due to the economic recession. It is a reminder to the people and authorities that quality health care is the right of every patient and it must be considered seriously when allocating budget for health. A big applause to these young men and women who have gathered here and made this competition possible. You feel strong when you see the youth of your cou ntry so ready to improve the health condition of the world. The people gathered here to make you believe that change is possible and we will make it possible.

Chapter 12 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chapter 12 - Assignment Example Cateora, Gilly, & Graham (2011) explore some of the reasons that can make a country not to be farther considered as a potential market via a planning process. The planning process is divided in to four phases but this paper will explore how and why a country can be dropped in the first two phases. The objective of the first phase is to match the needs of the company and its home country to those of the host country. The compatibility of the company’s character and its home country to those of the host country is the basis on which countries are either disqualified or qualified as markets. The first thing that a business will look at when evaluating a host country is the economy of that particular country. Every business wants to be associated and to partner with a country that records substantial economic growth or has a stable economy. For example, Greece can be viewed as a potential market for commodities like electronics. However, the fact that Greece’s economy is experiencing major debt problems would disqualify it from being a potential market. The second most important criterion that is used to evaluate a potential market is the political stability and the legal policies of the host nation. The political stability is very key if a potential market is to be considered as an actual market. This is because it ensures the safety of the business and its personnel and in most cases, it also means that the legal policies are favorable for running a business. The legal policies may include taxation brackets and the political stand of the country on trade regulating policies. Competition is the third criterion as highlighted by

Discussion 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Discussion 1 - Essay Example It would also involve gathering of insects, eggs or even hunting birds and animals (Andersen & Taylor, 2011). These activities require women to have sophisticated knowledge on trapping skills, fishing and even root and tuber searching. Tools such as digging sticks, bows, knives and fishing nets are used in the activities mentioned above. Women are also involved in cultivation of crops such as tubers, roots and even grains in gardens using ordinary hand tools such as hoes. The status of women has been impacted negatively because they are not empowered. In the societies above, women are required to stay close to their homes to take care of the children. They are required to bear children and work hard to provide for them. Therefore, they stay around homesteads and dig in the gardens around them. In this context, the women are home makers and cannot explore distant areas like their male counterparts. This situation has made women be left out in contributing to economic development within the foraging and horticultural based societies. This has resulted to women spending much of their time in gathering, hunting and taking care of the family. The situation above is being experienced in developing countries such as those within Asia. In such societies, women would even bear many children so that food procurement becomes easy because such a step would increase the labor force. On the other hand, their American counterparts contribute to economic development of their nation. In fact, most of them spend most of their time working and would even earn more than their husbands. Here, women have fewer children that they can easily manage, and this allows them to focus on their careers. To the American women, food is not a problem, and they do not spend much time in accessing it. In such societies, processed food is used, and it requires them to buy it, and present it for consumption. This brings out the difference between

Homeland Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Homeland Security - Essay Example The suddenness of the attacks on September 11, 2001, and the manner in which America was caught off guard, would shape our perception of the war on terror and frame America's response. Previous wars had unfolded methodically in the public's eye, such as the extended debate that preceded the Civil War. However, the War on Terror had no such incubation period to give the American public time to orient themselves to the new face of war. America was thrust into war "without any troops or plans in place to confront this particular enemy. Just as important, it occurred in a context of public indifference to or ignorance of the threat posed by terrorists" (Callahan, Dubnick, and Olshfski 555). The US had made few, if any, plans to deal with a terrorist arrack on US soil, and the discussion of terrorism was largely restricted to the law enforcement, investigators, and prosecutors that had confronted domestic terrorism such as the Unabomber and the attack on the Murrah Federal Building (Calla han, Dubnick, and Olshfski 555). The Congress took aggressive action and on October 4, 2001 introduced HR 3026 "To establish an Office of Homeland Security within the Executive Office of the President to lead, oversee, and coordinate a comprehensive national homeland security strategy to safeguard the Nation" (HR 3026). On November 25, 2002 George Bush signed into law PL 107-296, the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which established the Department of Homeland Security (Gressle CRS-2, CRS-6). ... The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) would consolidate intelligence efforts, provide for broad powers of investigation, and limit specific legal standards in regards to terrorism. The Homeland Security Act and the formation of the DHS gave the government sweeping new powers to patrol the US borders and took a more liberal approach toward domestic surveillance. The DHS was formed to consolidate intelligence and investigations when "The establishment of the Department of Homeland Security brought under one authority 22 federal entities with vital roles to play in protecting our Nation and preventing terrorist attacks within the United States (The National Security Strategy). Border patrol and customs has been especially challenged with 500 million people crossing our borders each year, and 21,000 containers entering the US through 350 commercial ports of entry every day (Bodenheimer). Bender reports that, "The Secure Border Initiative, costing more than $2 billion this year alone, is a major effort to increase Customs and Border Protection personnel, introduce detection technologies, and construct a fence along the border with Mexico". The DHS has also placed sp ecific priority on the increased use of 'tamper-evident' containers, biometric identification technology, and radiation, chemical, and biological threat detection equipment (Bodenheimer). In addition, there has been an increased level of domestic intelligence activity designed to weed out suspected terrorist cells. Marrin describes these increased efforts as: Additional controversial domestic intelligence programs include the Justice Department's proposed Operation TIPS for public reporting of suspicious activity, the modification of

Caring for the Earth and Its Inhabitants Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 58

Caring for the Earth and Its Inhabitants - Essay Example This study stresses that, the natural systems of the world are negatively affected either directly by the change in temperatures or indirectly by changes in sea level, melting of glaciers, alterations in forest patterns, changes in pH of oceans, climate change etc. One of the foremost impacts of the climate change has started to occur in the Arctic and the Antarctic regions since their high altitudes play a major factor in the rate of warming of these regions. Rapid melting of ice has aid the prospects of ice-free summers which can potentially eradicate an entire biome from the region. The biodiversity of these regions ranging from algae to the polar bears are accustomed to living on ice and the elevating temperatures pose a grave threat to their existence. The global climate change has also affected the marine system of the world. This has primarily occurred owing to the acidification of the ocean waters. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere also leads to enhanc ed dissolving of the gas into the ocean waters which increases the acidity of the waters and affects both plant and animal life. Ocean acidification leads to coral bleaching and dissolution of shells and skeletons of marine organisms. It is an undeniable fact that global warming has been accelerated by anthropogenic activities and it is up to us to control the damage. Conservation of animals is not the only option since we need to work at the very roots of the problem. One of the most important steps at the individual level is to decrease the carbon footprint. This can be done by altering our habits of energy usage, decreasing waste and recycling. At the societal level, we need to enhance green technologies, reduce emissions and adopt sustainable energy sources such as wind, hydro etc.

Billing and Coding Essay Example for Free

Billing and Coding Essay Healthcare Common Procedure Coding System (HCPCS) Level II entail nationwide codes used to report supplies and services offered within outpatient locations to Medicaid and Medicare patients that are left out by HCPSC Level I (Current Procedural Terminology -CPT) code. Recent HIPAA federal regulations require regular electronic claims to have Level II regulations. Many big countrywide players, like employee’s compensation financiers, acknowledge HCPCS level II regulations. Local Medicare transporters, business publishers, CMS, or Ingenix provide such codes (Smith, 2003). Suitable HCPCS level II regulations come before CPT codes regarding Medicare invoicing. However, numerous private players choose National Drug Codes (NDC) or Level I regulations instead of HCPCS Level II regulations, which may confuse medical care experts, thus causing denial of claims. Medical care experts ought to confirm that they are describing the correct regulations to the appropriate players through careful tracking of the billing and reporting needs of specific players. Level II regulations Describes Many heath products, however, such codes do not name real products or endorse them by assigning codes. Additionally, generation of such codes happens separate from reimbursement issues. Therefore, Level II regulations only serve to indicate the availability of a service or product in the wider health system, as opposed to justifying reimbursement (Smith, 2003). Players individually develop HCPCS Level II regulations’ criteria and rules which vary between players. HCPCS Level II regulations are comprised of a single alphabetical character (from A to V), then 4 digits. Letter ‘I’ is excluded since it may easily be confused with number ‘1’. Every letter group represents one or more areas of comparable services or products. Every letter group, and code illustrations from specific sections, are fully described on ensuing screens (http://docs. google. com/gview? a=vq=cache:DIuMS2X_QrgJ:www. ngsmedicare. com/ngsmedi are/DMEMAC/educationandSupport/ToolsandMaterials/SupManual/chapter14. pdf+Level+II+o +HCPCS+applies+and+Medicarehl=engl=ke). A regulations deal with various products and services, particularly tracheostomies, urologicals, and ostomies-related supplies. A codes also include Affordable DME, or equipments costing not more than $150, such as nebulizer substitution equipment. A code subcategories include: transport services; surgical and medical supplies; and miscellaneous, investigational, and administrative supplies and services. B codes handle parenteral and enteral nutrition services and supplies. B code-reported supplies include: feed supplies; dietary solutions; formulae; and combination pumps. C codes cover services compensated under Medicare’s OPPS -Outpatient Prospective Payment System. They don’t cover services compensated under different Medicare reimbursement systems. Private entities as well use C codes for compensation. Such codes are mandated by Medicare to report: biological, devices, and drugs qualified for intermediary pass-through imbursements for health facilities; and items categorized within fresh technology Ambulatory Payment Classifications (APC). D codes entail dental regulations. The American Dental Association (ADA) has copyrighted the Current Dental Terminology (CDT). ADA supplies such codes to CMS. E codes document Durable Medical Equipment (DME) like crutches, canes, commodes, walkers, pacemakers, restraints, wheelchairs, hospital beds, and patient lifts. G codes report professional medical care services and processes such as specialized services being considered for incorporation within the CPT code scheme and provisional procedures. National Medicaid organizations legally mandated to develop separate systems for recognizing psychological health services such as drug therapy and alcohol services use H codes. J codes describe drugs which are not normally self-administered, immunosuppressive and chemotherapy drugs pant solutions, plus other solutions and drugs. The proper code depends on factors like; dose; and administration route. K codes entail temporary DME, drugs, and supplies codes. They are generated when the relevant existing nationwide codes exclude codes needed to execute medical evaluation policies. Once endorsed for lasting incorporation into HCPCS, such codes become E, J, and A codes. L codes comprise of scoliosis apparatus, prosthetic insertions, orthopedic shoes, plus prosthetic and orphic devices and procedures. M codes cover medical services and they include: M0064; M0075; M0100; M0300; and M0301. P codes cover laboratory and pathology services and include screening laboratory and pathology services like testing Papanicolaou procedures and serum products (Smith, 2003). Q codes report many supplies and services including provisional cast provisions codes which facilitate splints and casts reimbursement after the modification of Medicare’s compensation technology. Such codes substitute ambiguous splinting and casting supplies’ codes. R codes cover analytic radiology services and document moving of moveable electrocardiogram or x-ray apparatus to patients’ homes, nursing homes, or different facilities. The Health Insurance Association (HIAA) Blue Cross/Blue Shield Association (BCBSA) uses S codes to document services, supplies, and drugs without countrywide codes, but where private entities require codes for program and policy implementation or processing of claims. Medicaid recognizes such codes; nonetheless, such are not payable. T codes report supplies and services without other stable codes. Medicaid does not accept T codes; however, they may be recognized by private entities. They describe: substance abuse therapy; home and nursing-related services; and training-related processes. V codes cover supplied and services concerned with hearing, vision, plus speech-language pathology. Vision-related provisions include: lenses; spectacles; and ocular prostheses. Hearing services consist of: hearing analyses; and hearing equipment and supplies. Speech language pathology processes include: modification or repair of supportive communication device or system; and dysphagia, language, and speech screening (http://www. lectureshare. com/download. php? q=HCPCS+overview_021532. pdfr=doc. J). References Coding:aTheaUseaofaHCPCSaLevelaIIaCodesa. Retrieved August 6th 2009 from http://www. lectureshare. com/download. php? q=HCPCS+overview_021532. pdfr=doc. J Jurisdiction B DME MAC Supplier Manual. (June 2009). Level II codes and HCPS modifiers. Retrieved August 6th 2009, from http://docs. google. com/gview? a=vq=cache:DIuMS2X_QrgJ:www. ngsmedicare. com/ngsmedicare/DMEMAC/educationandSupport/ToolsandMaterials/SupManual/chapter14. pdf+Level+II+of+HCPCS+applies+and+Medicarehl=engl=ke Smith, G. I. (2003). Basic CPT/HCPCS coding. Retrieved August 6th 2009, from http://library. ahima. org/xpedio/groups/public/documents/ahima/bok1_016767. pdf

European influence in North America Essay Example for Free

European influence in North America Essay In early colonial America, there were thirteen colonies. The English started them all, but those colonies varied indefinitely. The two primary regions of the colonies were the Chesapeake and the New England Regions. In the very beginnings of these regions, there were ample amounts of differences to create two very different American cultures. The first permanent English settlement in America is Jamestown, Virginia. Jamestown began as a business venture and then failed. Later a Virginia Company of London, which was a joint stock company, organized and sent one hundred and four colonists into Virginia in 1607. In a ships list bound for Virginia it is shown that there were no families aboard, just primarily single men and a hand full of single women. Also the list shows that the people aboard had no history in mining, instead there were people sent over that were perfumists and other needless expertise. The New England region had quite a different attendance, on a ships list bound for New England; there were many families with relevant work abilities. Having many families attributed significantly to the survival rate being much greater than Chesapeake Bays. John Winthrop, a leader of the puritans wrote God almighty in his most holy and wise providence hath so disposed of the condition of mankind [that in all times some must be rich, some poor, and some high and eminent in power and dignity, other mean and in subjection[yet] we must be knit together in this work as one man. These words spoken by John Winthrop show how the New England region was prosperous from the beginning. The New Englanders acquired ability or was established in their daily religion to form together and work as one. This unity was not embedded in the culture of the Chesapeake area. Captain John Smith wrote, on the history of Virginia the worse [among us were the gold seekers who] with their golden promises made all men slaves in hopes of recompense. There was no talk but dig gold, wash gold refine gold, load gold. This was the primary goal, to mine gold. One defines the religion in the New England region. The New England region was primarily consisted of Puritans. The Puritans initially left England in search of a refuge to purify the religion. Other than the Puritans there  were the Pilgrims, which were derived from the Puritans. There werent many differences at all between the Puritans and the Pilgrims. The only difference between the Pilgrims and Puritans is that the Pilgrims were not only against the Anglican Church but they called for a total separation from the church. In the New England Region the Puritan oligarchy was in place until the great awakening. In the Chesapeake region there were many religions from the beginning. For instance, Catholics, originally Protestants, settled Maryland. In result, New England was a lot more established and put together. Geography had many importances in colonial life. There wasnt any mountains in Jamestown therefore the colonists were susceptible to many attacks and invasions. Governor Berkeley and his council wrote on their inability to defend against the Dutch attacks in 1673. We thought it our duty to set forth in this our declaration, the true state and condition of this country in general and our particular disability to engage in war at the time of this invasion therefore do humbly beseech you most honorable council to consider that Virginia is interacted by so many vast rivers as makes more miles to defend than we do have me to defend them/. The Chesapeake region were not the only ones to run into trouble due to their geography, the New England region also had problems defending themselves. For instance in King Phillips war. Geography is also a major factor in any civilizations economy. The Chesapeake region primarily grew tobacco on there land. We all know that tobacco eventually ruins the soil, from draining all the vital nutrients from the ground. In order for the Virginians to generate a profit, they had to have an ample amount of land. The need to harvest tobacco resulted in a need for free-labor or indentured servants. Indentured servants were made to pay for there passage to colonial America by service instead of money. This source of service resulted in the Chesapeake Region having extremes of classes; meaning that the wealthy were becoming wealthier and the poor were becoming poorer. In Bacons rebellion a wealthy landowner, Nathanial bacon of Virginia finally  got fed up the aristocracy or that ran the government because he wasnt inducted. This is an exert from Bacons Manifesto We cannot in our hearts find one single spot of rebellion or treason or that we have in any manner aide at subverting the settled government, document H. These mean formed a government called the tide water aristocracy. Eventually Bacon started a riot. The poor in result were forced to move out to the western frontier. By them moving, it created tensions with the Native Americans. The Native Americans soon revolted and attacked the colonies. Bacon dies, and the rebellion were put to an end. This only occurred in the colonies and not England due to many things. One, there was more land to farm, two there was no tide water aristocracy, there was only land owners that were members of the church and established in the clergy. In the Chesapeake regions economy there was more than one variable, tobacco wasnt stable. In conclusion, New England and Chesapeake Regions were both settled largely by people of English origin but became to very distinct societies. There were many political, economical, religious, and cultural differences between the two regions. These differences resulted in two very distinct societies.

MRTP Act: Rise Fall and Need for Change: Eco Legal Analysis

MRTP Act: Rise Fall and Need for Change: Eco Legal Analysis 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Title The title of the project is MRTP Act: Rise, Fall and Need for Change: Eco-Legal Analysis and is part of the submissions to be made for the internal assessment for the course of Economics II. 1.2 Overview of Topic India, in its formative years of freedom, laid down the seeds of socialistic approach towards economic development. Five-year plans were designed with the aim of self-realance and self-sufficiency of the Indian industry and in this process of indigenuity, focus was laid on strong governmental regime to ensure equal and prosperous distribution of resources. One such attempt of the state resulted in the enactment of the MRTP Act, 1969 with the basic aim of comprehensive control over direction, pattern and quantum of investment to ensure that wealth is not concentrated in the hands of the few. However, with the emergence of the new Industrial Policy statement of 1980, a need was felt for promoting competition in domestic market, technological upgradation and modernization which was then followed by the massive New Policy Reforms of 1991 which emphasized attainment of technological dynamism and international competitiveness, by opening up the Indian economy to foreign investment. This could not be met by the Indian industry since it was not in competitive terms with the rest of the world and operated in an over-regulated environment. Hence, as was concluded in the Raghavan Committee Report, 2000  [1]   changes were sought in the competition policies of India and thus, the MRTP Act was laid to rest. This project will trace the performance of the MRTP and point out the faults that led to its failure and thus its repeal by the Competition Act. 1.3 Objective of Project This project is aimed at advocating and analysing the performance of the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practice Act, 1969 (henceforth, MRTP Act) in the Economic-Legal aspect. The project will primarily analyse the performance of the MRTP Act over the various Industrial development phases (From 1951 to post-1991 Reforms) and then try to establish how and why it paved the way for Competition Act, 2002. Thus, the basic aim is to establish the reasons for the failure of the MRTP and the subsequent reasons for the establishment of the Competition Act. 1.4 Data Set Explanation In the course of this project, the following data-sets have been used: 1) MRTP Commission Data: Depicting the number of cases considered and disposed of by the MRTP Commission in its last years of existence, i.e. from 2002-2004. This data has been computed in the form of Bar-Graph for illustrative purpose. This data has been sourced from the work of Sh. Pradeep S. Mehta, Gen. Sec., CUTS International in A Functional Competition Policy for India published by Academic Foundation, New Delhi, 2005. This data is available online and has been accessed through www.books.google.com [Link has been provided at the concerned graph] 2) Annual Growth Rate of Industrial Production Index: Depicting the trend in the growth of Industrial Production from the Year 1951 to the year 2007. This has been represented in the form of Data-Table, and the data divided into the various Industrial phases. This data has been sourced primarily from the book of S. K. Misra and V. K. Puri titled Economic Environment of Businees, 5th ed, Himalaya Publishing House, 2008. This book is available at the Reference Section of the NALSAR Law Library. This data is originally sourced in the above-mentioned book from: (a) Government of India, Handbook of Industrial Statistics, 1992, Table 50, p.150; (b) S. L. Shetty, Structural Retrogression in the Indian Economy since the Mid-1960s, Economic and Political Weekly, Special Supplement, 1978, Table 4, p. 9; (c) Government of India, Economic Survey, 2000-01, Box 7.1, p.130; (d) RBI, Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy, 2000, Table 199, p. 409; (e) Government of India, Economic Survey, 2004-05, Table 7.2, p.142; (f) RBI, Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy, 2006-07, Table 237, p. 606 and Table 238, p. 607. 1.5 Research Methodology The methodology adopted in this project is descriptive. The research is based on findings and statistics provided in primary sources like Statistical data and Committee Reports and on secondary sources of books and articles published in journals, hence the methodology adopted is despcriptive in nature. 1.6 Limitations The research is limited to the resources available at the NALSAR Library and the data sets available online and at the NALSAR Library in the manner of Study Reports and Research findings. 2. MRTP: WHY IT WAS ENACTED 2.1 Post-Independence: Socialistic Industrial Regime Structure In the years preceding the enactment of the MRTP Act, 1969, India had only been a free nation for a little more than 15 years. Following independence, it had laid down the formative structure of its governance and organization on the touchstone of socialism. The socialist approach was inherent in the functioning of the government as it preached social and economic equality, which was later adopted in the Preamble to the Constitution of India  [2]  by the 42nd Amendment. In this process, the concept of planned economic development started since the early 1950s. However, this approach did not yield the desired result of socio or economic equality. The initial industrial licensing policies had not borne the planned results- instead, the market and the industries were showing negative trends and wealth was getting concentrated in the hands of the few. This was observed by the Hazari Committee in its 1967 Report on Industrial Planning and Licensing Procedure, 1955 where it found that working of the licensing system had resulted in disproportionate growth of some big industrial house.  [3]   Similarly, the Mahalanobis Committee Report (1964) on Distribution and Level of Income, reported that the top 10% of the population cornered 40% of the income while the 20 of the largest firms in India owned 38% of the total built up capital of the private sector.  [4]   2.2 Emergence of MRTP The previous industrial policies had clearly not worked in the direction the state had hoped for since, post independence many new and big firms had entered the Indian  market and they had little competition and thus, were trying to monopolize the  market. Hence the need for a stricter policy regime was realised to safeguard the welfare of the consumers by removing barriers to competition in the Indian economy, and this resulted in the enactment of the MRTP Act, 1969 which came into force in June 1970. The primary objectives of the Act were listed down in the Preamble as follows:  [5]   i) Regulate the concentration of economic power to the common detriment, ii) Control monopolies and monopolistic trade practices, iii) Prohibit restrictive trade practices, and iv) Regulate unfair trade practices. 2.3 Primary Concepts To understand the objectives of the MRTP and for the understanding of this project, we will first proceed to discuss the primary concepts related to the project topic: 1) Monopolistic Trade Practices Section 2(i) of the MRTP Act, 1969 defines Monopolistic Trade Practice as trade practices that have the effect of preventing or lessening competition in the production, supply or distribution of any goods or in the supply of any services- by misusing ones power to use the  market conditions,  in terms of production and sales of goods and services, and thus abuse its market position- are called monopolistic trade practices. Firms involved in monopolistic trade practice  try to eliminate competition from the  market by taking advantage of their monopoly and charge unreasonably high prices. This in effect leads to deterioration in the product quality and limits technical  development. Thus, such practices are anti-consumer-welfare. 2) Restrictive Trade Practices Activities that firms indulge in that tend to block the flow of capital into production, in order to maximize their own profits and to gain control over the  market- such activities are termed as Restrictive Trade Practices.  [6]  Such firms also control conditions of delivery to affect the flow of supplies leading to unjustified costs of production and distribution- while establishing their monopoly in the market. 3) Unfair Trade Practices Section 36-A of the MRTP Act, 1969 which was inserted on the recommendation of the Sachar Committee Report, laid down as to what may  be termed as  Unfair  Trade Practices:  [7]   False representation and misleading  advertisement  of goods and services. Misleading representation regarding utility, quality and standard of goods and services. Giving false guarantee or warranty on goods and services without adequate tests. False claims or representation regarding  price  of goods and services. Giving false facts regarding sponsorship, affiliation etc. of goods and services. Making false or misleading representations of facts. 2.4 Doctrine of the Act The MRTP Act, 1969 had its origin in the Directive Principles of State Policy embodied in the Constitution of India. Article 39[(b) and (c)] of the Constitution lay down that the State shall direct its policy towards ensuring:  [8]   (i) that the ownership and control of material resources of the community are so distributed as to best serve the common good; and (ii) that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. Thus, the doctrine behind the MRTP Act, 1969 was based on the concept of planned economic development that had started since early 1950s. The Public Sector Industrial (Development Regulation) Act, 1951 and Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 together commanded a comprehensive control over direction, pattern and quantum of investment. However, despite such control that the state exercised through these Acts, these did not entirely benefit the consumers rather, these complex network of controls and regulations fettered the freedom of the enterprises and yielded negative results for the economy. 3. FUNCTIONING AND PERFORMANCE: THE MRTP COMMISSION 3.1 Functions The Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Commission (MRTPC), a quasi- judicial body, was established under Section 5 of the MRTP Act, 1969 to take up action against companies that indulged in monopolistic and unfair trade activities. It discharged functions as per the provisions of the Act. The main functions of the MRTP Commission being: to enquire into and take appropriate action in respect of unfair trade practices and restrictive trade practices. in regard to monopolistic trade practices, to enquire into such practices:  [9]   upon a reference made to it by the Central Government, or upon its own knowledge or information; submit its findings to Central Government for further action. The Office of the Director General of Investigation Registration was created in the year 1984 to perform certain statutory functions and duties under the MRTP Act, 1969 so as to subserve its objective to protect the interests of the consumers in the country.  [10]  The Act was amended from time to time and major amendments took place in the years 1984 and 1991 and these reforms shall be discussed later in this project. 3.2 Mechanism The working of the MRTP Commission can be put down in the following steps: 1) As discussed above, the MRTP Commission was empowered under section 10 of the Act to take either suo motu action or action upon reference by the government, against companies that were deemed to be adopting restrictive, monopolistic or unfair practices. 2) All such trade practices were considered to be prejudicial to public interest. Hence, the onus was on the entity, body or undertaking charged with the perpetration of such trade practices, to plead under the MRTP Act to avoid being indicted. 3) If the pleadings were satisfactory to the Commission and if it was further satisfied that the restriction is not unreasonable, the Commission would arrive at the conclusion that the trade practice is not prejudicial to public interest and discharge the enquiry against the charged party.  [11]  Furthermore, if a trade practice was expressly authorised by any law for the time being in force, the Commission was barred from passing any order against the charged party. 4) Otherwise, if the Commission deemed it to be fit, it could either: a) give temporary injunction, or b) award compensation. 3.3 Illustrative Cases A) Shyam Gas Company Case This was a case where the supply of cooking gas cylinders was in short supply, which led to unfair exploitation of the situation. Shyam Gas Co. was the sole distributor of BPCL for cooking gas cylinder at Hathras (U.P.) which was allegedly engaging in the following restrictive practices: giving gas connections to the customer only when he purchased a gas stove or a hot plate from the company; and charging customers twice the price for supply of fittings and appliances. The MRTP Commission held that the company was indulging in a restrictive trade practice that was prejudicial to the interest of the consumers. B) Bal Krishna Khurana Case This was the first case where a sales promotion organizer was charged under unfair trade practices. The respondent, Bal Krishna was famous all over North India for his selling export quality hosiery at extremely low prices wherein he sold goods worth Rs. 210/- for as low as Rs. 15/- The Commission received complaints from consumers who reported that they were being cheated into buying sub-standard goods. The Commission then put a restraining order against Bal Krishna from organizing any such promotion ventures. In addition, the Commission also advised newspapers against carrying any such misleading advertisements.  [12]   3.3 Performance The MRTP Commissions performance can be understood by looking at the data which shows the functioning of the Commission in its last phase (till 2007), depicting the volume of inquiries commissioned and reliefs awarded. A) Under Restrictive Trade Practices Figure 1: Enquiries Considered and Disposed of by MRTP Commission as of 31.12.2004 (RTP) SOURCE: Computed from data available at- Pradeep S. Mehta, CUTS International, A Functional Competition Policy for India, p. 47, Academic Foundation, New Delhi 2005.  [13]   B) Under Unfair Trade Practices Figure 2: Enquiries Considered and Disposed of by MRTP Commission as of 31.12.2004 (UTP) SOURCE: Computed from data available at- Pradeep S. Mehta, CUTS International, A Functional Competition Policy for India, p. 47, Academic Foundation, New Delhi 2005.  [14]   4. MRTP AND INDUSTRIAL GROWTH RATE: ANALYSIS The objective of this project is to analyse the performance of the MRTP Act, 1969 and then establish why it had to be replaced by a newer Competition Act, 2002. For this purpose, and to establish the shortcomings of the MRTP, we will now consider the Industrial Production Growth Rates during the period starting from 1951 till 2007 (the year MRTP was formally declared to be dysfunctional) and then draw conclusions by contrasting between the stricter regime, pre-1991 reforms and the post-1991 reforms phase of industrial development. 4.1 Industrial Growth Rate: 1951-1980 Table 1: ANNUAL GROWTH RATES OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION IN INDEX NOS., 1951-1980. Use-Based or Function Classification 1951-55 1955-60 1960-65 1965-74 1974-79 1979-80 1. Basic Goods 4.7 12.1 10.4 6.5 8.4 -0.5 2. Capital Goods 9.8 13.1 19.6 2.6 5.7 -2.3 3. Intermediate Goods 7.8 6.3 6.9 3.0 4.3 1.9 4. Consumer Goods 4.8 4.4 4.9 3.4 5.5 -4.4 (a) Durables 6.2 6.8 5.6 (b) Non-Durables 2.8 5.4 -6.1 GENERAL INDEX 5.7 7.2 9.0 4.1 6.1 -1.6 SOURCE: (1) Government of India, Handbook of Industrial Statistics, 1992, Table 50, p.150; S. L. Shetty, Structural Retrogression in the Indian Economy since the Mid-1960s, Economic and Political Weekly, Special Supplement, 1978, Table 4, p. 9. (2) Accessed in: S. K. Misra and V. K. Puri, Economic Environment of Businees, 5th ed, p. 399, Himalaya Publishing House, 2008. [Available at NALSAR Law Library] 4.2 Industrial Growth Rate: 1981-1991 Table 2: ANNUAL GROWTH RATES OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION IN INDEX NOS., 1981-1991. Use-Based or Function Classification 1981-85 1985-90 1990-91 1. Basic Goods 8.7 7.4 3.8 2. Capital Goods 6.2 14.8 17.4 3. Intermediate Goods 6.0 6.4 6.1 4. Consumer Goods 5.1 7.3 10.4 (a) Durables 14.3 11.6 14.8 (b) Non-Durables 3.8 6.4 9.4 GENERAL INDEX 6.4 8.5 8.3 SOURCE: (1) Government of India, Handbook of Industrial Statistics, 1992, Table 50, p.150; S. L. Shetty, Structural Retrogression in the Indian Economy since the Mid-1960s, Economic and Political Weekly, Special Supplement, 1978, Table 4, p. 9. (2) Accessed in: S. K. Misra and V. K. Puri, Economic Environment of Businees, 5th ed, p. 400, Himalaya Publishing House, 2008. [Available at NALSAR Law Library] 4.3 Industrial Growth Rate: 1992-2007 Table 3: ANNUAL GROWTH RATES OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION IN INDEX NOS., 1981-1991. Use-Based or Function Classification 1992-93 to 1996-97 1997-98 to 1996-97 1997-98 to 2001-02 2002-03 to 2006-07 1. Basic Goods 6.8 4.1 6.6 6.7 2. Capital Goods 8.9 4.7 14.4 15.7 3. Intermediate Goods 8.5 5.8 6.2 2.5 4. Consumer Goods 6.6 5.5 9.6 12.0 (a) Durables 13.4 10.7 8.8 15.3 (b) Non-Durables 4.8 3.8 10.0 11.0 GENERAL INDEX 7.4 5.0 8.2 8.2 SOURCE: (1) For Column 2, Government of India, Economic Survey, 2000-01, Box 7.1, p.130; For Column 3, RBI, Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy, 2000, Table 199, p. 409; For All Columns 1 4, Government of India, Economic Survey, 2004-05, Table 7.2, p.142; RBI, Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy, 2006-07, Table 237, p. 606 and Table 238, p. 607. (2) Accessed in: S. K. Misra and V. K. Puri, Economic Environment of Businees, 5th ed, p. 401, Himalaya Publishing House, 2008. [Available at NALSAR Law Library] 4.4 Comparison of the Phases Now basing on the above data-set, the researcher would now proceed to draw some inferences while considering the economic and social conditions prevailing at the corresponding time in India. 4.4.1 Phase of 1951-1980 1) If one observes closely, the general index (G.I.), the time-band of 1951-55 shows an impressive figure of 5.7 (impressive because India had just gotten independence and was taking its foundational steps in setting up the economy). This rate moves positively as we trace the G.I till the year 1965- where it reaches a peak of 9.0. This is the phase where the Indian economy was controlled by a handful of big business houses, and the government was struggling with its licensing and controlling policies- even in the absence of many players, the industry saw a sharp growth. 2) However, as we move on to the year 1965-76 we see a sharp fall to 4.1 accompanied by sharp falls in the index of basic goods, capital goods and intermediate goods. This is the phase where the unfettered growth of the few business houses could not be controlled and the market had started showing monopolistic trends- and showing falling indexes. More importantly, during the same phase, MRTP was introduced in the year 1969. Though it was implemented to control any monopolistic trends by preventing concentration of wealth in the hands of the few and catalyse competition in the market, it clearly failed in the initial years. The market did not react in a positive manner- the government had started with its nationalization and strict licensing policy. Some economists were of the view that there was a considerable slackening of real investment and this was followed by a decline in private-investment as well. This has been attributed to loss of stimulus for investment, and this possibly stems from the strict regime of MRTP, 1969.  [15]   In addition, other reasons can also be adduced to the fall in the index. Among them: Wars fought in 1965 and 1971 Drought conditions in some of the years between 1965-71 Oil crisis of 1973 3) Though the new policy was slowly starting to yield results, however the growth never really happened and this is evident from the negative trend observed in the phase 1979-80. It only changed after the New Industrial Policy of 1984 which is discussed next. 4.4.3 Phase of 1981-1991 1) The phase of 1981-85 shows a positive growth, in contrast to the preceding decade primarily because of the 1984 reforms. This broadened investment across the public and private sectors, while some level of deregulation was allowed. Most importantly, the cap on MRTP firms (which were subject to special regulation) was increased, which resulted in the more number of small-sized firms to be free from government regulation- thus, in turn leading to an increase in the production of consumer goods- especially durables. Thus, the loosening of government hold on small businesses was returning dividends to the consumers. The Industrial Policy of 1984 made the most significant changes to the Indian market- it reduced the domestic barriers to entry and expansion to inject a measure of competition in domestic industry, simplifying the procedures and providing easier access to better technology and intermediate material imports.  [16]   2) Also, this was the phase when the Green Revolution was yielding positive results and the agricultural sector was seeing a manifold increase in production. 2) This growth rate was successfully sustained over the next decade till the time preceding 1990. However, parallel to this growth was the increase in govt. spending deficit. India had reached a stage where it could lend no more- its Foreign Reserves had dried up and investment in all forms had almost ceased. This was the time when India took the mammoth step of Liberalization with the New Policy Reforms of 1991. 4.4.3 Post 1991 Reforms 1) The New Policy Reforms of 1991 brought about a host of changes to the Indian economy. The most major change being Liberalization- opening up of the market in accordance with the WTO Regime. This not only opened the gates of foreign investment but also brought about domestic policy changes in the licensing and regulation scenario. 2) The greatest change in the market was that made to the MRTP Act. Prior to the 1991 Reforms, a total of 1,854 undertakings were registered under the MRTP Act- of these, 1787 belonged to large industrial houses and remaining 67 were dominant undertakings.  [17]  The New Industrial Policy, 1991 now scrapped the assets limit for MRTP companies- this meant doing away with the requirement of prior approval from Central government for establishing new undertakings, expansions, mergers, amalgamations and takeovers. Thus, the changes brought about in the 1991 Reforms opened up the market in more ways than one. And hence, one can safely conclude that keeping with Indias liberalization, MRTP had become undesirable, rather, an obstacle to the growth story and thus, had to undergo multiple amendments in the period following the 1991 Reforms. In the next chapter, the researcher will continue with this line of thought and bring about the other shortcomings of the MRTP and how it finally came to be replaced. 5. SHORTCOMINGS OF MRTP Continuing from the last chapter, we have observed by comparing the industrial data that over the course of 4 decades from the time MRTP was enacted, the industry reacted in manners not suitable to the consumer. In this chapter, the researcher will discuss the other facets relating to the problems associated with the MRTP. 5.1 Anti-Welfaristic Results Though the MRTP was enforced with the aim of distribution of resources and leveraging of competition in the market, the desired results could not be obtained. Rather, the market conditions turned out to be hostile for the consumer, and small-businesses and big-businesses alike, were subjected to excessive control. The heightened governmental control, where new undertakings and ventures were severely restrained by complex procedures, created conditions wherein the firms, existing and new, found it difficult to survive and thus, could not give back any benefits to the consumer. 5.2 Stringent Provisions The Act aimed at abolishing all acts which were anti-competition. The Act, over the years became very active in taking on firms head-on to make them stand in line with the provisions of the Act. The provisions, though aimed at benefitting the consumers and the industrial growth, often played out tough- and the stringent provisions did not benefit anyone. For instance, the concept of Predatory Pricing, which is still a marketing policy adopted by companies to have an edge over their competitors, was handed down heavily by the MRTP Commission. Predatory Pricing is defined as pricing a good or service below the cost of production of the good or service, with the objective of driving a competitor out of trade or to discipline him and thereby achieve elimination of competition.  [18]  This is a means for a firm with strong market power to eliminate other competitors and then, dominate the market. This is effectively an anti-competitive mechanism, however, it can also be used to drive competition i.e. it can be effectively used to establish a strong competitive market. Examples are ripe in the current market where there are strong competitive conditions for the firms- they have to dole out quality at the best price to keep themselves established in the market, otherwise other competitive firms will drive them out of business. Examples being: A) Tide, a detergent that was introduced in the Indian market in 2000 was successful in breaking into a market which was strongly held by Surf (so much so, that households used to use Surf as a generic term for any kind of detergent). Tide used strong pricing, backed by its robust parent company, predatory in nature, to quickly grab a large market share for itself. It offered quality detergent at a price than the other existing detergents. This in turn made the other companies lower their price and offer better quality. Hence, the consumer emerged the winner from this competitive trend between the detergent makers. B) Tata Docomo, a mobile service provider that rolled out only 2 years back in the Indian market, entered at a time when there were established players in the market like Airtel, Reliance and state-run BSNL. But Docomo with its pricing policy which was unlike the prevailing market conditions, offered calling rates which changed the pulse. The market prior to the arrival of Docomo was based on per/minute charges, but Docomo came up with a per/second policy- thus, forcing other established players to also offer similar rates. Though such strategy was predatory in nature, but it helped in establishing a more competitive market which only went onto help the customers. Thus, the point that the researcher is trying to drive home is that such predatory pricing is not necessarily anti-competitive but rather an agent to bring about better options for the consumer. Hence, this is more beneficial in terms of consumers welfare. However, the MRTP Commission took up a strong case against such pricing and though it aimed at benefitting the market by ensuring fair competition, it instead closed down on the benefits to the customers. Hence, what was then required is a strong, case-by-case basis of handling and not absolute ban on predatory pricing. 5.3 Ambiguity in Law The MRTP Act, 1969 contained only one particular section, Section 2(o) to cover all anti-competition practices- defining Restrictive Trade Practice as a trade practice which prevents, distorts or restricts competition and thus, by defining it in Orcas: Study of Habitat, Types and Social Behaviours Orcas: Study of Habitat, Types and Social Behaviours Introduction Called â€Å"whale killer† by the Spanish sailors, and also as â€Å"killing demon† to The Haida of British Columbia. Whatever it called, mariners have long been astonished by the talent of the large black and white dolphins known as Orcas, or killer whales. The biggest members of the dolphin family, Orcas are one of the most iconic species of cetacean which other marine mammals like whales and porpoises. They are apex predators with no other animals that hunt them, except for humans. Killer whales as a species have a sundry diet, although individual population often specialize in particular types of prey. Some feed exclusively on fish, while other hunt marine mammal. Killer whales can be found though out all oceans from the tropical seas to the freezing Arctic and Antarctic. What is Ontology? Ontology is a theory that relates all the related surrounding to show the relations of the information which concern about the existing organisms in the surrounding. It also related to the metaphysics that is a philosophy branch that deals with a principles that is the first and relates all the concepts likes cause, time, space, being and many more. A part from that, ontology is like a mind map to show how the flow of the living or the nature of being. It will relate to each other and makes others more understand the concept of this philosophy. Moreover, a controlled vocabulary must be use in forming the ontology as will show the relation of one word to another. If not, the ontology structure might not give the user understanding and it will be less valuable. It will be shown in queries of information that link with each other. Furthermore, a controlled vocabulary terms is a must as to the show the accurate definitions and facilitate the accurate and consistent information. Taxonomy Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Cetacea Family: Delphinidae Genus: Orcinus Species: Orca Types There are three types of orcas may be recognizable enough to be considered as different subspecies. The three types may differ in genetics, behaviour, morphology, and ecology. A genetic study suggests that these subspecies has been separated from others killer whales for approximately 750,000 years, which evolution cause them to change separately from each other and creating distinctly physical appearance from each other’s. Main Types Residents Killer Whales The most commonly sighted of the three populations. Resident Killer Whales are noticeably different from both transient and offshore forms. The dorsal fin is rounded at the tip and curved and tapering, or falcate. Resident whales have a variety of saddle patch pigmentations with five different patterns recognized. Theyve been sighted from California to Russia. Resident whales primarily eat fish. Resident killer whales in the North Pacific consist of populations Southern residents, Northern residents, Southern Alaska residents, Western Alaska North Pacific residents. Resident type killer whales occur in large social groups termed pods, which are defined to be groups of whales that are seen in association with one another greater than 50% of the time. The pods represent collections of matrilines (a matriarch and all her descendents), which have been found to be the stable social unit. The Southern Resident killer whale population contains three podsJ, K, and L podsconsidered one stock under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) and as a distinct population segment (therefore, species) under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Their range during the spring, summer, and fall includes the inland waterways of Puget Sound (Washington state), Strait of Juan de Fuca (boundary between the United States and Canada), and Southern Georgia Strait (between Vancouver Island and British Columbia, Canada). Their occurrence has also been documented in the coastal waters off of, Oregon, central California, and Queen Charlotte Islands. Relatively little is known about the winter movements and range of the Southern Resident stock. Southern Residents have not been observed associating with other resident whales, and genetic data suggest that Southern Residents rarely, if ever, interbreed with other killer whale populations. Transients Killer Whales These subspecies occur throughout the eastern North Pacific, and have primarily been studied in coastal waters. Their geographic range overlaps that of the resident and offshore killer whales. The dorsal fin of transient whales tends to be straighter at the tip than those of resident and offshore whales.6 Saddle patch pigmentation of transient killer whales is restricted to two patterns, and the large areas of black colour dont mix into the white of the saddle patch that is seen in resident and offshore types. Transient type whales are often found in long-term stable social units of less than 10 whales, smaller than resident social groups. Transient killer whales feed nearly exclusively on other marine mammals. Transients are also referred to as Biggs killer whale in honour of Michael Bigg, who was a Canadian marine biologist who is recognized as the founder of modern research on killer whales. The term has become increasingly common and may eventually replace the transient label. Offshores Killer Whales A third population of killer whales in the northeast Pacific was discovered in 1988. They are similar to resident whales, but can be distinguished generally by features such as their rounded fins with multiple nicks on the edge, smaller overall size, and tendency for males and females to be more similar in size (less sexual dimorphism) Offshores have the largest geographic range of any killer whale community in the north-eastern Pacific and often occur 15 km or more offshore, but also visit coastal waters and occasionally enter protected inshore waters. Animals typically congregate in groups of 20-75 animals with occasional sightings of larger groups up to 200 whales. They are presumed to feed primarily on fish, though they have been documented feeding on sharks. Genetic analyses indicate that offshore killer whales are reproductively isolated from other forms of killer whales. Antarctic Type Antarctic (type A) Killer Whale A large (perhaps to 9.5m), black and white form killer whale. It migrate to Antarctica during austral (summer) where it forages in open (ice free) waters and feeds mainly on minke whales and occasionally elephant seals. During the winter, It probably migrates to lower latitudes, perhaps to the tropics. Pack Ice (large type B) Killer Whale A large, two-toned gray and white form with dark cape pattern and very large eye patch. Often have yellowish cast due to diatoms. Circumpolar, it forages mainly in loose pack ice where it preys on ice seals or Weddell seals, which groups wave-wash off ice floes by creating waves with their tails. Occasionally take Minke whales. Gerlache (small type B) Killer Whale A medium sized, two-toned gray and white form with dark cape pattern and large white eye patch. Often appears yellowish due to diatom infestation. Common around Antarctic Peninsula, especially in Gerlache Strait. Preferred prey unknown but has been feeding on penguins on numerous occasions. Ross Sea (type C) Killer Whale The smallest killer whale known. Adults males reach only 6m. A two-toned gray and white form with a dark grey cape, and often colored yellowish by diatom film. Eye patch is distinctively narrow and slanted. Occurs deep in the pack ice im eastern Antarctica and feeds on fish. Especially common in the Ross Sea. Subantarctic (type D) Killer Whale Recently describe form, known from a dozen sightings. Easily recognized by its tiny eye patch, with rounded head, swept back and pointy dorsal fin. Distributed in subantarctic water and sometimes associated with islands. Preferred prey unknown but reportedly steals fish off long-lines. Morphology A typical killer whale distinctively bears a black back, white chest and sides, and a white patch above and behind the eye. Calves are born with a yellowish or orange tint, which fades to white. It has a heavy and robust body with a large dorsal fin up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall. Behind the fin, it has a dark grey saddle patch across the back. Antarctic killer whales may have pale grey to nearly white backs. Adult killer whales are very distinctive and are not usually confused with any other sea creature. The killer whales teeth are very strong and covered in enamel. Its jaws are a powerful gripping apparatus, as the upper teeth fall into the gaps between the lower teeth when the mouth is closed. The front teeth are inclined slightly forward and outward, thus allowing the killer whale to withstand powerful jerking movements from its prey while the middle and back teeth hold it firmly in place. Killer whales are the largest extant members of the dolphin family. Males typically range from 6 to 8 metres (20 to 26ft) long and weigh in excess of 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons). Females are smaller, generally ranging from 5 to 7m (16 to 23ft) and weighing about 3 to 4 tonnes (3.0 to 3.9 long tons; 3.3 to 4.4 short tons). Killer whales have good eyesight above and below the water, excellent hearing, and a good sense of touch. They have exceptionally sophisticated echolocation abilities, detecting the location and characteristics of prey and other objects in their environments by emitting clicks and listening for echoes. Life cycle Female orcas mature usually around age 15. Mothers calve, with usually a single offspring, about once every five years after a 17-month pregnancy. In resident pods, births occur at any time of year, although winter is the most common. Mortality is extremely high during the first six to seven months of life, when 37–50% of all calves die. Killer whales are protective of their young, and other adolescent females often assist the mother in caring for them. Females breed until age 40, meaning on average they raise five offspring. The lifespans of wild females average 50 years, with a maximum of 80–90 years. The females are known to go through menopause and live for decades after they have finished breeding. Males sexually mature at the age of 15, but do not typically reproduce until age 21. Wild males live around 29 years on average, with a maximum of 50–60 years. Captive killer whale lifespans are typically significantly shorter, usually less than 25 years; however, numerous individuals are alive in their 30s, and a few have reached their 40s. Range and habitat The killer whale is the most cosmopolitan of all cetaceans and may be the second-most widely-ranging mammal species on the planet, after humans (Rice 1998). Killer whales can be seen in virtually any marine region, from the equator to polar waters. Although they are generally more common in near shore areas and in higher-productivity areas and/or higher latitudes, there appear to be no hard and fast restrictions of water temperature or depth on their range. The distribution extends too many enclosed or partially-enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf. However, there are only extralidmital records from the Baltic Sea and no records from the Black Sea. Killer whales may occur in virtually any marine or estuarine habitat but are most common in areas of high marine productivity, particularly at higher latitudes and near shore (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Forney and Wade 2006). Sightings range from the surf zone to the open sea. Movements can be extensive. For instance, some killer whales have been documented to have moved between Alaska and central California, a distance of more than 2000 km. In the Antarctic, they readily enter areas of floe ice in search of prey (Pitman and Ensor 2003). Killer whales in some areas congregate seasonally in coastal channels to forage and occasionally enter river mouths. Population Although the available data are far from complete, abundance estimates for the areas that have been sampled provide a minimum worldwide abundance estimate of about 50,000 killer whales. It is likely that the total abundance is higher, because estimates are not available for many high-latitude areas of the northern hemisphere and for large areas of the South Pacific, South Atlantic, and Indian Ocean. However, this population abundance refers to several forms of killer whales that may be recognized as different species or subspecies in the future (Reeves et al. 2004). Behaviours Social structure Unlike other animals, orcas or killer whales are momentous for their complex societies. Besides human, the only other animals with this complex socials structure are elephants and due to their complexity, many of the marine experts are unease about how humane it is to keep orcas in captive situations. Resident killer whales have a complex yet stable social grouping system. Different from other mammal species, resident live their mother for their entire lives. As females could reach age of 90, they could be as many as four generation traveling together forming matrilineal which is very stable. Individuals sometimes separate for only a few hours at a time for mating or forage. Pods, form from loose aggregations of closely related matrilineal which commonly consist of one to four or five matrilineal. Pods may separate for weeks or months at a time, unlike matrilines. One research shows that DNA testing shows that resident males almost always mate with females from other pods. The next rank of resident socials structure is Clans which composed of pods with same dialect. They often mingling with pods from different clans as the clan ranges overlap. The final rank of relationship is called community. It is interpreted as a set of clans that frequently commingle, although they do not share vocal patterns. Vocalizations Same as other cetaceans, orcas depends heavily on underwater sounds for orientation, feeding and communication. Clicks, whistles and pulsed called are the three categories of sounds they produced. Clicks are believed to be used primarily for navigations and discerning prey and other object in the surrounding environment. It is also commonly heard during social interactions. Dialects Orcas dialects are different between pods due to the similarity of the call differentiate one pod from the other. Dialects are usually generated within the orca’s birth pod. Differences between dialects can be not only between pods but between ecotypes, which are specific populations within a species that have a geographical and genetic variability. Intelligence After the sperm whale, orcas have the second-heaviest brains among marine mammals. They have been trained in captivity and described as intelligent. Orcas also often impersonate others, and seem to intentionally teach skills to their younger pod members. People and marine biologist have interacted closely with orcas numerous times and said that the orcas show playfulness, curiosity, and ability to solve problems. Hunting As apex predators, there is nothing that can stop them from hunting and preying on everything. They will eat anything, but not always willingly. Hunting strategies and prey Salmons The main diet of resident orcas but they will hunt and eat smaller and deeper-dwelling fish if they have to. The favourite of the resident orcas is the Chinooks salmons as it has been observed that it make up 65% of all the salmons consumed. Resident also eats lingcod, halibut, squid and other types of fish. Whales Better known as killer whales, it’s this prey which gave them the notorious name. Orcas have dined on whales in all shape and sizes. They will attack eventually anything even the largest animal in the world, the blue whale. But the common victim to this â€Å"wolves of the sea† is the Minke whale. Other whales documented to be attacked by orcas are Fin, Humpbacks, Grey, Bowhead, Sei and even the fearsome Sperm whales. Orcas also often hunt the fragile whale calf. Individuals of the pods take turn tiring the calf by blocking it form re-surfacing to breath witch will slowing suffocate and eventually drowning the calf, while the other distract the mother. They often will only eat the lips and tongue, and let the whale body to sink. In the far north, belugas and narwhals are also have been preyed upon. Porpoises and dolphins Porpoises are faster swimmer than the orcas making it harder to catch. Hunted by the Transient’s attacks, they cooperate by letting one orca to chase the porpoises to flea directly into the pod. Once caught, the orcas will launch the porpoises out of the water by hitting them with their tails. Once too injured to swim away, the orcas will strip the porpoises down to their bones and lungs. Same technique has been observed to be used on bottlenose dolphins. Orcas also use direct chase to catch the dolphins. Sharks With great intelligent, the orcas have figured out to goes above and beyond other oceans notorious predator, the sharks. There even recorded documentary of the Great White falling victim to a pod of orcas. They use their 5-inch-long teeth to grab hold of the sharks fins and turn it upside down underwater witch cause tonic immobility that leaving the shark to suffocate within minutes as they need to move to breath. After the shark had suffocated, then the orcas would start feeding on it. Sea lions, leopard seals, and penguins Orcas have many techniques to catch these preys. The most dramatic is using the wave as cover to caught prey off guard on the beach. Next technique is â€Å"wave-hunting† where orcas will spy-hop to locate any prey on ice floes, and then swim in groups to create waves that washes the prey off the ice and into the water where other orcas lie to snatch the prey. Another method of hunting for orcas is waiting until the prey come to them. They wait at edges of the ice for unsuspecting prey that want to enter the water or slips and fall into the water.

The Code of Chivalry in The Once and Future King Essay -- Once and Fut

The Code of Chivalry in The Once and Future King      Ã‚  Ã‚   T.H. White's novel The Once and Future King presents a code of chivalry that outlines the expected knightly behavior of the time. This particular code stresses loyalty to one's liege, love and respect toward women, and absolute devotion to justice. At the height of Arthur's kingdom, this code was widely accepted by all. However, as Arthur's kingdom begins to decline, the code of chivalry begins to hold less importance among the people. The fall of Arthur's kingdom is directly related to the absence of the code of chivalry in the behavior of the Knights of the Round Table. Sir Lancelot betrays Arthur when he has an adulteress affair with Guenever. Sir Lancelot also disrespects women when he leaves Elaine to be with Guenever in Camelot. King Arthur himself is disloyal to justice when he allows Guenever to be rescued by Lancelot.    The love triangle of Arthur, Lancelot, and Guenever is a constant theme throughout every account of the Arthurian legend. Geoffrey Ashe's The Arthurian Handbook states that "We may say that these knights are expected to serve their King..."(81). The revelation of the affair finally comes when Sir Agravaine shouts, "'Traitor Knight! Sir Lancelot, now art thou taken'"(White 569). Lancelot was summoned to Queen Guenever's bedroom, and Sir Agravaine is finally exposing the affair and gaining revenge on Lancelot for unhorsing him many times in the past. The two people that Arthur trusts most are Guenever and Lancelot. Arthur is well aware of the affair between the two, but chooses to pretend that nothing is going on. Due to this naivety, Arthur earns the disrespect (and even hatred) of Agravaine and Mordred, who eventual... ...misuse of justice make way for Mordred and his ideas to take root in Camelot. All of these actions eventually lead to Arthur chasing Lancelot and waging war upon him, while Mordred takes over in Camelot. This symbolizes that there is no middle ground between good (Arthur) and evil (Mordred). As good dissipates, evil always grows stronger. However, the same goes for evil dissipating and good rising to power. Given the time period in which T.H. White wrote (post World War II), White is speaking of the downfall of Hitler and the rise of a new order in Europe.    Works Cited Ashe, Geoffrey. The Arthurian Handbook. New York, USA: Garland Publishing, 1988 Morris, Rosemary. The Character of King Arthur in Medieval Literature. Cambridge: Brewer Publishing Co., 1982 White, T.H.. The Once and Future King. New York: Penguin Putnam, 1987   

Night :: essays research papers

In 1944, in the village of Sighet, Romania, twelve-year-old Elie Wiesel spends much time and emotion on the Talmud and on Jewish mysticism. His instructor, Moshe the Beadle, returns from a near-death experience and warns that Nazi aggressors will soon threaten the serenity of their lives. However, even when anti-Semitic measures force the Sighet Jews into supervised ghettos, Elie's family remains calm and compliant. In spring, authorities begin shipping trainloads of Jews to the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex. Elie's family is part of the final convoy. In a cattle car, eighty villagers can scarcely move and have to survive on minimal food and water. One of the deportees, Madame Schà ¤chter, becomes hysterical with visions of flames and furnaces. At midnight on the third day of their deportation, the group looks in horror at flames rising above huge ovens and gags at the stench of burning flesh. Guards wielding billy clubs force Elie's group through a selection of those fit to work and those who face a grim and improbable future. Elie and his father Chlomo lie about their ages and depart with other hardy men to Auschwitz, a concentration camp. Elie's mother and three sisters disappear into Birkenau, the death camp. After viewing infants being tossed in a burning pit, Elie rebels against God, who remains silent. Every day, Elie and Chiomo struggle to keep their health so they can remain in the work force. Sadistic guards and trustees exact capricious punishments. After three weeks, Elie and his father are forced to march to Buna, a factory in the Auschwitz complex, where they sort electrical parts in an electronics warehouse. The savagery reaches its height when the guards hang a childlike thirteen year old, who dies slowly before Elie's eyes. Despairing, Elie grows morose during Rosh Hashanah services. At the next selection, the doctor culls Chlomo from abler men. Chlomo, however, passes a second physical exam and is given another chance to live. Elie undergoes surgery on his foot. Because Russian liberation forces are moving ever closer to the Nazi camp, SS troops evacuate Buna in January 1945. The Wiesels and their fellow prisoners are forced to run through a snowy night in bitter cold over a forty-two mile route to Gleiwitz. Elie binds his bleeding foot in strips of blanket. Inmates who falter are shot. Elie prays for strength to save his father from death. At a makeshift barracks, survivors pile together.

Low Carbohydrate Diets Essay -- Science Research Weight Diet Essays

Low Carbohydrate Diets What is a carbohydrate? A carbohydrate is a member of a large class of natural organic substances. Carbohydrates are in almost everything we eat, sometimes in very small amounts but often times in substantial quantities. Some examples of common carbohydrates are sugars, starch and cellulose. Carbohydrates are important because they provide a storage of energy in our bodies that is quickly accessible. In fact, carbohydrates make up the major source of dietary energy for people all over the world (Stephen 1995). In addition, carbohydrate intake increases levels of a substance called tryptophan in the body, which releases serotonin in the brain. Whether this phenomenon affects our hunger and eating habits is still unclear (Fairburn 1993). Carbohydrates are in almost everything we eat, like sugars, starches and cellulose. What you will find on the web about low-carb diets... Almost all of the information that you'll find on the world wide web about the subject of low-carb diets is basically the same. There are thousands of documents, so rather than reading each one of them just look at this brief summary of the information that is out there. Following the web summary is a literature summary of the information contained in published professional and scientific journals about the topic of low-carb diets. What is a low-carb diet? What is the purpose of a low-carb diet? Low-carbohydrate diets are essentially very simple. The idea is that by restricting daily carbohydrate intake, cravings for carbohydrates will eventually subside, resulting in a lower amount of food consumption and weight loss. Low-carb diets are meant to be used as general weight loss plans, especially for people who a... ..., 1995. Peterson, C.M., and L. Jovanic-Peterson. "Randomized crossover study of 40% vs. 55% carbohydrate weight loss strategies in women" Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 14(4):369-75, Aug, 1995. Racette, S., et all. "Effects of aerobic exercise and dietary carbohydrate on energy expenditure and body composition during weight reduction in obese women". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 61(3):486-94, March 1995. Stephen, A.M., G.Seiber, Y.Gerster, and D.Morgan. "Intake of carbohydrate and its components-- international comparisons, trends over time, and effects of changing to low-fat diets". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 62(4):851S-867S, Oct. 1995. Wing, R.R., J.Vazquez and C.Ryan. "Cognitive effects of ketogenic weight reducing diets" International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders. 19(11):811-6, Nov 1995.

How do the directors Trevor Nunn and Roman Polanski present Macbeth to their audiences? Essay

How do the directors Trevor Nunn and Roman Polanski present Act I scenes I to IV of Macbeth to their audiences? In your work you must make reference to the techniques used by each director to create atmosphere and a sense of good and evil. You should pay special attention to the portrayal by each director of the character of the witches, Macbeth and Duncan. In this essay I am going to explore the different representations of the Shakespeare play Macbeth by directors Trevor Nunn and Roman Polanski. The scenes I will focus on are act I scenes I until act I scene 4. In these scenes I will pay specific attention to the Witches, Macbeth and King Duncan to show how the good and evil atmosphere in the play affected the events that befall. The witches are going to play a strong part in my essay because I believe that the supernatural is a major part of the play’s concept. The witches have a profound affect on Macbeth and so the plot is greatly governed by their actions. The atmosphere they produce has a great affect on the audience The atmosphere is important because it gives the audience strong first impressions of what the play in trying to show. The portrayal of good and evil interlink with the atmosphere and are important in showing how Macbeth starts off with noble thoughts and is brought to corruption by the three witches. I will start off by looking at how Trevor Nunn expressed his interpretation of the Shakespeare’s Macbeth. Trevor Nunn makes the play into a stage performance. The whole play is summed up with Trevor Nunn’s comment: ‘I want to photograph the text’ In my opinion I think this is just what he did. The sound effects were made openly by the actors and there are no scenic effects, just groupings and close-ups in coloured light. This gave the play the perfect setting for the atmosphere that Shakespeare was trying to portray, he wanted a strong feeling of uneasiness and the supernatural, and the close set gave just this. After the play is introduced the 12 actors in the cast appear to be sat in a circle. A bright light behind illuminates each character so that each of the actors’ faces appear to be light or dark or in some cases only half in shadow. Trevor Nunn used this opening as a way to give the audience a quick insight into which of the characters has an evil side and which are good. The scenes were performed in the centre of the circle while members of the cast who were not involved with the scene watched from outside. This works well because of the positioning of the lights; they illuminate the participating actors only and the light does not shine on the other members of the cast. The lighting arrangement on the stage allows the cast to appear to vanish. An example of this technique is after the witches have meet Macbeth: they appear to disappear in to thin air when in fact they have just stepped out of the light. The play involves many close-ups and extreme close-up shots. This is because there is no scenery in the background, unlike Polanski’s version, so the cameras pay specific detail to facial features and body movement. The camera often shows a group of people before zooming in on the face of a particular character so as to show the circumstance s/he is in. This helps develop the plot and give more depth to the different characters and their personalities. The costume in the play is very important in expressing good and evil. The costumes are mainly black and white because of this; white being associated with pureness and black being associated with evil. The white of King Duncan’s costume resembles purity and holiness while the green/black costumes of the witches resemble flagitiousness and the unnatural. During Act 1 Scene 4, Macbeth and Banquo help King Duncan to his throne where the Royal Crown is placed upon his head. The Crown is a very important stage prop because it reminds everyone that King Duncan is a powerful character. It is very important to the plot because it is Macbeth and Banquo who support the crown and Macbeth kills both Banquo and Duncan to get to it. King Duncan also possesses a crucifix which he wears around his neck. Although he appears to be holy, the crucifix shows the audience that his faith in God. However, there is also a possibility that Duncan wears the crucifix because he fears the supernatural and he believes that the crucifix will protect him. At the beginning of the play we see that Macbeth is wearing a black costume. This means that the audience does not know whether he is noble or corrupt and this adds suspense to the atmosphere. I think that the use of this co-ordination is very good because it allows the audience to use the colour sense for good and evil to aid in their understanding of the plot. The atmosphere is very important in the play. It keeps the audience interested and adds an extra depth to the plot. The stage set creates a feeling of claustrophobia that adds to the evil and unnatural. When they are accompanied by the fact that the cast are wearing monochrome costume and the black, featureless background the atmosphere is very strong and mystical. The atmosphere with the witches is especially powerful. The witches speak using rhyming couplets and to a different rhythm to the rest of the play. There is a chorus in which they all join in: ‘Double, double, toil and trouble: Fire, burn and cauldron, bubble’ Act 4 Scene 1 The alliteration with the repeated ‘d’ and ‘b’ sounds make the chant sound very powerful and is very catchy. The supernatural aspect in Shakespeare’s Macbeth is very important and Trevor Nunn has captured it very well. By using the stage techniques previously explored, he captured the battle of good and evil between the witches and King Duncan. At the beginning of the play, we hear the witches scream of chaos against Duncan’s words of prayer. This strong image of good versus evil and the strong supernatural actions of the witches gives the play a powerful start. The lighting position he uses allows the witches to suddenly vanish giving a strong supernatural effect. Later in the play, Lady Macbeth calls on the supernatural through the earth (this has strong connotations with the Devil’s presence in the Earth) using methods that would have been thought suspicious in Shakespeare’s time. In Trevor Nunn’s version of Macbeth, Macbeth appears to be young, valiant and noble. However as the play progresses we are able to see the changes occur in him. This change is much more apparent because of the fact that Macbeth starts off so innocent – we are able to see the change more clearly. Banquo appears to be older than Macbeth, a veteran maybe, who shows little fear and appears at the start of the play to be a noble man. He is dressed in slightly less dark clothing which inter-links with the evil/good dress code. Roman Polanski’s version is a very different interpretation of Macbeth. The most noticeable difference is that he has presented his rendering as a motion picture. More colour and music is used to aid the portrayal of the plot to the audience and there is much more background detail. The film shows a lot of strong images, for example, the witches on the beach at the prelude of the play. The ability to edit scenes using computers and the possibility of picture enhancing allows a much more realistic play that the people of today can deal with more easily. The realism of the film helps the audience understand the plot using visuals, which are much more effective in assisting cognition. The play starts off with the credits appearing with battle sounds playing. The camera appears to be moving towards the battle scene but it never gets there. The first scene is the battlefield, littered with bodies and burning remains of chariots, soldiers are roaming around salvaging what they can. When the witches appear on a deserted beach, they perform a ritual involving blood, spit and a severed hand. They bury them in the sand and perform their opening lines from Act 1 Scene 1. Roman Polanski uses many effects that can only be used in a motion picture. The use of mid shots and long shots are possible because Polanski’s Macbeth has a very detailed background. The different screen shots are combined using wipes and fades that can only be used in films. Polanski has used special effects to emphasis the circumstance, for example, music or sounds of the event like marching and battle sounds. Zoom is often used to show up more detail in the background or foreground. For example, in the background the zoom is used to give the effects of expanse on the beech and of the countryside. In the foreground the zoom can focus on different relevant facial features such as eye shifting. Extreme close-up shots a give very good aspect view of important actions that are too difficult for the audience to spot from mid or long shots. The camera angle varies throughout to make the most of different views, this helps maximise the impact of the film on the audience. The atmosphere in this version is not as intense as in the Trevor Nunn version. This is partially due to the expanse in which the scenes are set and very little of the claustrophobia that is entrapped in the Nunn version exists in this environment. The special effects that have been utilised by Polanski enhance the effect of the atmosphere. Though the same text is used, visual detail like different backgrounds helps stimulate the eyes as well as the ears. Also, the sound affects used by Polanski are much more intricate than Nunn’s because he has used computer effects for the battle sounds. The music he uses adds depth to the actions the cast are performing and plays a major part in boosting the strength of the atmosphere. The lighting does not play as large a part as in Trevor Nunn’s Macbeth. However, the different angles at different times of day hitting the surrounds can cause effects that are very clever. For example, near the beginning of the film the witches are on the beach and when they depart, the light reflecting off the water makes it appear as if they are walking on water (The supernatural affect of this would have been good). From what I can tell, no artificial light is used, unlike in Trevor Nunn’s where artificial light is all that is used. The costume in Polanski’s version is very extensive. Each individual character has their own dress colours; they appear to wear what they want. The Knights wear armour and the women wear colourful dresses, the men wear trousers and boots and the children wear similar smaller versions. The witches had to be portrayed as dilapidated so their clothes are ragged and shabby. One of the witches wears a mask and make-up to make her appear more of a reject of society, a freak. Modern audiences need special effects like this to keep them interested in the film. Macbeth and Banquo appear younger in this version. Macbeth appears to be a valiant young man who has now proved himself in battle while Banquo fights beside him having already proven his valour. After having analysed both productions, I believe that they are both very strong interpretations of Macbeth. I found that Polanski’s version was more easily understandable because there were many things providing the outline of the plot both orally and visually. However, Nunn’s was more moving because he captured the atmosphere that I think Shakespeare wanted to encapsulate when he wrote the play. I think that Nunn expressed his interpretation very strongly. His statement about wanting to photograph the text was defiantly what he set out to do and what I think he achieved. Roman Polanski swapped a couple of the scenes around to try and help the audience understand more easily. However, Trevor Nunn kept to the text indefinitely. This is backed up by the fact that he stated he wanted to ‘photograph the text’. I think that they both portrayed Macbeth as I had imagined he would have been. He appears to start of a picture of heroics, which gradually changes for the worse. They are both young and have proven their honour in battle. The theme of good and evil was very well portrayed in Trevor Nunn’s version. The witches created more of an atmosphere than in Polanski’s and the lighting worked very well in helping the witches appear as if they were disappearing. However, Polanski did a very good job of creating an evil atmosphere using a motion picture. He was able to use computers and colour more vividly.